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The Art of Making Porcelain Was First Perfected by the People of Which Ancient Civilization

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Ceramic material

Porcelain
Chinese 瓷

Porcelain () is a ceramic material made by heating substances, generally including materials such equally kaolinite, in a kiln to temperatures betwixt one,200 and 1,400 °C (two,200 and two,600 °F). The strength, and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises mainly from vitrification and formation of the mineral mullite within the body at these high temperatures. Though definitions vary, porcelain can be divided into iii master categories: hard-paste, soft-paste and bone china. The category that an object belongs to depends on the limerick of the paste used to make the body of the porcelain object and the firing weather.

Porcelain slowly evolved in Cathay and was finally achieved (depending on the definition used) at some point virtually ii,000 to ane,200 years ago, so slowly spread to other Eastward Asian countries, then to Europe and eventually to the rest of the earth. Its manufacturing process is more enervating than that for earthenware and stoneware, the ii other main types of pottery, and it has commonly been regarded equally the virtually prestigious type of pottery for its delicacy, forcefulness, and its white color. It combines well with both glazes and paint, and tin be modelled very well, allowing a huge range of decorative treatments in tableware, vessels and figurines. It also has many uses in technology and manufacture.

The European name, porcelain in English, comes from the erstwhile Italian porcellana (cowrie shell) because of its resemblance to the surface of the beat out.[1] Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine china in some English-speaking countries, as information technology was showtime seen in imports from China.[2] Properties associated with porcelain include depression permeability and elasticity; considerable strength, hardness, whiteness, translucency and resonance; and a high resistance to corrosive chemicals and thermal daze.

Flower centrepiece, 18th century, Spain

Porcelain has been described as being "completely vitrified, hard, impermeable (even before glazing), white or artificially coloured, translucent (except when of considerable thickness), and resonant".[3] Yet, the term "porcelain" lacks a universal definition and has "been practical in an unsystematic style to substances of various kinds which accept only certain surface-qualities in mutual".[4]

Traditionally, East asia only classifies pottery into low-fired wares (earthenware) and high-fired wares (often translated as porcelain), the latter also including what Europeans call stoneware, which is high-fired but not generally white or translucent. Terms such as "proto-porcelain", "porcellaneous" or "near-porcelain" may be used in cases where the ceramic body approaches whiteness and translucency.[five]

Types [edit]

Chinese Imperial Dish with Flowering Prunus, Famille Rose overglaze enamel, between 1723 and 1735

Demonstration of the translucent quality of porcelain

Hard paste [edit]

Hard-paste porcelain was invented in Red china, and it was also used in Japanese porcelain, and most of the finest quality porcelain wares are in this material. The earliest European porcelains were produced at the Meissen mill in the early 18th century; they were formed from a paste equanimous of kaolin and alabaster and fired at temperatures up to one,400 °C (2,552 °F) in a wood-fired kiln, producing a porcelain of great hardness, translucency, and strength.[6] Later, the composition of the Meissen hard paste was changed and the alabaster was replaced by feldspar and quartz, assuasive the pieces to be fired at lower temperatures. Kaolinite, feldspar and quartz (or other forms of silica) proceed to institute the basic ingredients for most continental European hard-paste porcelains.

Soft paste [edit]

Soft-paste porcelains date back from early attempts past European potters to replicate Chinese porcelain by using mixtures of dirt and frit. Soapstone and lime are known to take been included in these compositions. These wares were not yet actual porcelain wares every bit they were neither hard nor vitrified past firing kaolin clay at high temperatures. Equally these early formulations suffered from high pyroplastic deformation, or slumping in the kiln at high temperatures, they were uneconomic to produce and of low quality.

Formulations were after developed based on kaolin with quartz, feldspars, nepheline syenite or other feldspathic rocks. These are technically superior, and continue to be produced. Soft-paste porcelains are fired at lower temperatures than difficult-paste porcelain, therefore these wares are generally less hard than hard-paste porcelains.[7] [8]

Bone china [edit]

Although originally developed in England in 1748[9] to compete with imported porcelain, os red china is at present fabricated worldwide, including China. The English language had read the letters of Jesuit missionary François Xavier d'Entrecolles, which described Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets in detail.[10] One author has speculated that a misunderstanding of the text could maybe have been responsible for the first attempts to use bone-ash every bit an ingredient of English language porcelain,[10] although this is not supported by mod researchers and historians.[11] [12] [xiii] [14] [15]

Traditionally, English os red china was made from two parts of os ash, one office of kaolin and one role china stone, although the latter has largely been replaced past feldspars from non-United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland sources.[xvi] But for example Purple Crown Derby still uses 50% bone ash in the 21st century.

Materials [edit]

Kaolin is the primary material from which porcelain is made, even though clay minerals might account for just a small proportion of the whole. The word paste is an sometime term for both unfired and fired materials. A more mutual terminology for the unfired cloth is "trunk"; for example, when buying materials a potter might club an corporeality of porcelain trunk from a vendor.

The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the clay mineral kaolinite is oft a raw material. Other raw materials tin include feldspar, brawl clay, drinking glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse and alabaster.

The clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive (sticky) and have high plasticity; brusk clays are less cohesive and accept lower plasticity. In soil mechanics, plasticity is determined by measuring the increase in content of water required to modify a clay from a solid country adjoining on the plastic, to a plastic state bordering on the liquid, though the term is besides used less formally to describe the ease with which a clay may be worked.

Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays. They wet very quickly, pregnant that modest changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of water content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow and consequently must exist carefully controlled.

Production [edit]

Forming [edit]

Porcelain can exist fabricated using all the shaping techniques for pottery. Information technology was originally typically made on the potter's wheel, though moulds were too used from early on. Slipcasting has been the virtually common commercial method in recent times.

Glazing [edit]

Biscuit porcelain is unglazed porcelain treated as a finished product, mostly for figures and sculpture. Unlike their lower-fired counterparts, porcelain wares do not need glazing to render them impermeable to liquids and for the near role are glazed for decorative purposes and to make them resistant to dirt and staining. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the celadon wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking furnishings on porcelain.

Decoration [edit]

Porcelain oftentimes receives underglaze ornament using pigments that include cobalt oxide and copper, or overglaze enamels, allowing a wider range of colours. Like many before wares, modern porcelains are often biscuit-fired at around one,000 °C (1,830 °F), coated with coat and so sent for a 2d glaze-firing at a temperature of about 1,300 °C (two,370 °F) or greater. Another early on method is "once-fired", where the coat is applied to the unfired torso and the two fired together in a single performance.

Firing [edit]

In this process, "green" (unfired) ceramic wares are heated to high temperatures in a kiln to permanently prepare their shapes, vitrify the body and the glaze. Porcelain is fired at a higher temperature than earthenware so that the torso can vitrify and go non-porous. Many types of porcelain in the past have been fired twice or even three times, to allow ornament using less robust pigments in overglaze enamel.

History [edit]

Chinese porcelain [edit]

Porcelain was invented in Prc over a centuries-long development flow outset with "proto-porcelain" wares dating from the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 B.C.Eastward). By the time of the Eastern Han dynasty (CE 25–220) these early glazed ceramic wares had adult into porcelain, which Chinese defined as high-fired ware.[17] [eighteen] Past the late Sui dynasty (581–618 CE) and early on Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), the now-standard requirements of whiteness and translucency had been achieved,[19] in types such as Ding ware. The wares were already exported to the Islamic world, where they were highly prized.[18] [20]

Somewhen, porcelain and the expertise required to create information technology began to spread into other areas of East Asia. During the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD), artistry and product had reached new heights. The manufacture of porcelain became highly organised, and the dragon kilns excavated from this period could fire as many as 25,000 pieces at a time,[21] and over 100,000 by the end of the menstruum.[22] While Xing ware is regarded equally amongst the greatest of the Tang dynasty porcelain, Ding ware became the premier porcelain of the Song dynasty.[23] Past the Ming dynasty, production of the finest wares for the court was concentrated in a single city, and Jingdezhen porcelain, originally endemic by the imperial government, remains the centre of Chinese porcelain production.

By the time of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD), porcelain wares were being exported to Asia and Europe. Some of the most well-known Chinese porcelain fine art styles arrived in Europe during this era, such as the coveted "blue-and-white" wares.[24] The Ming dynasty controlled much of the porcelain trade, which was expanded to Asia, Africa and Europe via the Silk Road. In 1517, Portuguese merchants began direct merchandise past ocean with the Ming dynasty, and in 1598, Dutch merchants followed.[xx]

Some porcelains were more highly valued than others in imperial Cathay. The most valued types tin be identified past their association with the court, either as tribute offerings, or as products of kilns under imperial supervision.[25] Since the Yuan dynasty, the largest and all-time centre of production has made Jingdezhen porcelain. During the Ming dynasty, Jingdezhen porcelain get a source of majestic pride. The Yongle emperor erected a white porcelain brick-faced pagoda at Nanjing, and an uncommonly smoothly glazed type of white porcelain is peculiar to his reign. Jingdezhen porcelain's fame came to a peak during the Qing dynasty.

Japanese porcelain [edit]

Although the Japanese aristocracy were keen importers of Chinese porcelain from early, they were not able to make their ain until the arrival of Korean potters that were taken captive during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598). They brought an improved type of kiln, and i of them spotted a source of porcelain clay near Arita, and before long several kilns had started in the region. At first their wares were similar to the cheaper and cruder Chinese porcelains with underglaze blue ornamentation that were already widely sold in Japan; this style was to continue for cheaper everyday wares until the 20th century.[26]

Exports to Europe began around 1660, through the Chinese and the Dutch East India Visitor, the but Europeans allowed a trading presence. Chinese exports had been seriously disrupted past civil wars as the Ming dynasty fell apart, and the Japanese exports increased quickly to fill the gap. At get-go the wares used European shapes and mostly Chinese decoration, as the Chinese had done, but gradually original Japanese styles developed.

Nabeshima ware was produced in kilns owned by the families of feudal lords, and were decorated in the Japanese tradition, much of it related to textile design. This was non initially exported, but used for gifts to other aloof families. Imari ware and Kakiemon are wide terms for styles of export porcelain with overglaze "enamelled" ornamentation begun in the early menses, both with many sub-types.[27]

A great range of styles and manufacturing centres were in use by the start of the 19th century, and every bit Japan opened to trade in the 2nd half, exports expanded hugely and quality generally declined. Much traditional porcelain continues to replicate older methods of product and styles, and there are several modern industrial manufacturers.[28] By the early 1900s, Filipino porcelain artisans working in Japanese porcelain centres for much of their lives, after introduced the craft into the native population in the Philippines,[29] although oral literature from Cebu in the key Philippines have noted that porcelain were already being produced by the natives locally during the time of Cebu's early rulers, prior to the arrival of colonizers in the 16th century.[xxx]

European porcelain [edit]

These exported Chinese porcelains were held in such neat esteem in Europe that in English red china became a ordinarily–used synonym for the Italian-derived porcelain. The kickoff mention of porcelain in Europe is in Il Milione by Marco Polo in the 13th century.[31] Apart from copying Chinese porcelain in faience (tin glazed earthenware), the soft-paste Medici porcelain in 16th-century Florence was the offset real European effort to reproduce it, with little success.

Early in the 16th century, Portuguese traders returned habitation with samples of kaolin, which they discovered in China to be essential in the production of porcelain wares. Still, the Chinese techniques and composition used to manufacture porcelain were not yet fully understood.[21] Countless experiments to produce porcelain had unpredictable results and met with failure.[21] In the German country of Saxony, the search concluded in 1708 when Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus produced a difficult, white, translucent type of porcelain specimen with a combination of ingredients, including kaolin and alabaster, mined from a Saxon mine in Colditz.[32] [6] It was a closely guarded merchandise secret of the Saxon enterprise.[6] [33]

In 1712, many of the elaborate Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets were revealed throughout Europe by the French Jesuit father Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles and shortly published in the Lettres édifiantes et curieuses de Chine par des missionnaires jésuites.[34] The secrets, which d'Entrecolles read almost and witnessed in China, were now known and began seeing use in Europe.[34]

Meissen [edit]

Von Tschirnhaus forth with Johann Friedrich Böttger were employed by Augustus 2, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, who sponsored their piece of work in Dresden and in the boondocks of Meissen. Tschirnhaus had a wide cognition of science and had been involved in the European quest to perfect porcelain manufacture when, in 1705, Böttger was appointed to assist him in this task. Böttger had originally been trained as a pharmacist; after he turned to alchemical inquiry, he claimed to have known the secret of transmuting dross into aureate, which attracted the attention of Augustus. Imprisoned past Augustus equally an incentive to hasten his research, Böttger was obliged to work with other alchemists in the futile search for transmutation and was eventually assigned to assist Tschirnhaus.[32] I of the starting time results of the collaboration betwixt the ii was the development of a blood-red stoneware that resembled that of Yixing.

A workshop notation records that the kickoff specimen of hard, white and vitrified European porcelain was produced in 1708. At the fourth dimension, the research was all the same beingness supervised by Tschirnhaus; however, he died in October of that year. It was left to Böttger to report to Augustus in March 1709 that he could make porcelain. For this reason, credit for the European discovery of porcelain is traditionally ascribed to him rather than Tschirnhaus.[35]

The Meissen manufacturing plant was established in 1710 after the development of a kiln and a glaze suitable for utilise with Böttger's porcelain, which required firing at temperatures of up to ane,400 °C (2,552 °F) to reach translucence. Meissen porcelain was once-fired, or green-fired. It was noted for its great resistance to thermal stupor; a visitor to the mill in Böttger's time reported having seen a white-hot teapot existence removed from the kiln and dropped into cold water without harm. Although widely disbelieved this has been replicated in modern times.[36]

Russian porcelain [edit]

In 1744, the Elizabeth of Russian federation signed an agreement to establish the first porcelain manufacturing plant; previously information technology had to exist imported. The technology of making "white gold" was carefully subconscious by its creators. Peter the Great had tried to reveal the "large porcelain undercover", and sent an agent to the Meissen factory, and finally hired a porcelain master from abroad.[37] This relied on the inquiry of the Russian scientist Dmitry Ivanovich Vinogradov. His development of porcelain manufacturing technology was not based on secrets learned through third parties, but was the result of painstaking work and careful analysis. Thanks to this, past 1760, Majestic Porcelain Factory, Saint Petersburg became a major European factories producing tableware, and after porcelain figurines.[38] Eventually other factories opened: Gardner porcelain, Dulyovo (1832), Kuznetsovsky porcelain, Popovsky porcelain, and Gzhel.[ citation needed ]

During the twentieth century, nether Soviet governments, ceramics continued to exist a popular artform, supported by the state, with an increasingly propagandist role.[39] [40] One artist, who worked at the Baranovsky Porcelain Factory and at the Experimental Ceramic and Artistic Establish in Kyiv, was Oksana Zhnikrup, whose porcelain figures of the ballet and the circus were widely known.[41]

Soft paste porcelain [edit]

The pastes produced by combining clay and powdered glass (frit) were chosen Frittenporzellan in Federal republic of germany and frita in Spain. In French republic they were known as pâte tendre and in England as "soft-paste".[42] They appear to have been given this name because they do not hands retain their shape in the wet state, or because they tend to slump in the kiln under high temperature, or because the trunk and the glaze can be hands scratched.

France

Experiments at Rouen produced the primeval soft-paste in France, but the first of import French soft-paste porcelain was made at the Saint-Cloud factory earlier 1702. Soft-paste factories were established with the Chantilly manufactory in 1730 and at Mennecy in 1750. The Vincennes porcelain manufactory was established in 1740, moving to larger bounds at Sèvres[43] in 1756. Vincennes soft-paste was whiter and freer of imperfections than any of its French rivals, which put Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain in the leading position in French republic and throughout the whole of Europe in the second one-half of the 18th century.[44]

Italy

Doccia porcelain of Florence was founded in 1735 and remains in product, unlike Capodimonte porcelain which was moved from Naples to Madrid past its royal owner, later on producing from 1743 to 1759. After a gap of 15 years Naples porcelain was produced from 1771 to 1806, specializing in Neoclassical styles. All these were very successful, with big outputs of high-quality wares. In and around Venice, Francesco Vezzi was producing hard-paste from around 1720 to 1735; survivals of Vezzi porcelain are very rare, simply less so than from the Hewelke factory, which only lasted from 1758 to 1763. The soft-paste Cozzi factory fared better, lasting from 1764 to 1812. The Le Nove factory produced from near 1752 to 1773, so was revived from 1781 to 1802.[45]

England

The kickoff soft-paste in England was demonstrated by Thomas Briand to the Regal Order in 1742 and is believed to have been based on the Saint-Cloud formula. In 1749, Thomas Frye took out a patent on a porcelain containing os ash. This was the first os china, subsequently perfected by Josiah Spode. William Cookworthy discovered deposits of kaolin in Cornwall, and his factory at Plymouth, established in 1768, used kaolin and people's republic of china stone to make difficult-paste porcelain with a body composition similar to that of the Chinese porcelains of the early 18th century. But the cracking success of English ceramics in the 18th century was based on soft-paste porcelain, and refined earthenwares such as creamware, which could compete with porcelain, and had devastated the faience industries of France and other continental countries by the cease of the century. Most English porcelain from the late 18th century to the nowadays is bone china.

In the twenty-five years later Briand's demonstration, a number of factories were founded in England to make soft-paste tableware and figures:

  • Chelsea (1743)[46] [47]
  • Bow (1745)[48] [49] [50]
  • St James's (1748)[fifty] [51]
  • Bristol porcelain (1748)
  • Longton Hall (1750)[52]
  • Royal Crown Derby (1750 or 1757)[53] [54]
  • Royal Worcester (1751)
  • Lowestoft porcelain (1757)[55]
  • Wedgwood (1759)
  • Spode (1767)

Other uses [edit]

Electrical insulating cloth [edit]

Porcelain insulator for medium-high voltage

Porcelain and other ceramic materials have many applications in engineering, particularly ceramic engineering. Porcelain is an fantabulous insulator for apply with high voltages, peculiarly in outdoor applications (see Insulator (electricity)#Textile). Examples include: terminals for high-voltage cables, bushings of ability transformers, and insulation of high-frequency antennas.

Building textile [edit]

Porcelain tin be used every bit a building fabric, unremarkably in the grade of tiles or big rectangular panels. Modern porcelain tiles are generally produced by a number of recognised international standards and definitions.[56] [57] Manufacturers are found beyond the earth[58] with Italian republic being the global leader, producing over 380 million foursquare metres in 2006.[59] Celebrated examples of rooms decorated entirely in porcelain tiles tin can be plant in several European palaces including ones at Galleria Sabauda in Turin, Museo di Doccia in Sesto Fiorentino, Museo di Capodimonte in Naples, the Purple Palace of Madrid and the nearby Royal Palace of Aranjuez.[60] and the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing.

More recent noteworthy examples include the Dakin Building in Brisbane, California, and the Gulf Edifice in Houston, Texas, which when constructed in 1929 had a 21-metre-long (69 ft) porcelain logo on its exterior.[61] A more detailed description of the history, industry and properties of porcelain tiles is given in the commodity "Porcelain Tile: The Revolution Is Only Start."[61]

Bathroom fittings [edit]

Porcelain Sleeping accommodation Pots from Vienna.

Because of its immovability, inability to rust and impermeability, glazed porcelain has been in use for personal hygiene since at least the 3rd quarter of the 17th century. During this period, porcelain sleeping room pots were commonly found in higher-form European households, and the term "bourdaloue" was used equally the name for the pot.[62]

However bathroom tubs are not made of porcelain, but of porcelain enamel on a metal base, usually of cast fe. Porcelain enamel is a marketing term used in the US, and is not porcelain but vitreous enamel.[63]

Dental porcelain [edit]

Dental porcelain is used for crowns, bridges and veneers.

Manufacturers [edit]

Porcelain wares, such as those like to these Yongle-era porcelain flasks, were ofttimes presented every bit trade appurtenances during the 15th-century Chinese maritime expeditions. (British Museum)

  • The Americas
    • Brazil
      • Germer Porcelanas Finas
      • pt:Porcelana Schmidt
    • U.s.
      • Blue Ridge
      • CoorsTek, Inc.
      • Franciscan
      • Lenox
      • Lotus Ware
      • Pickard China
  • Asia
    • China
      • Ding ware
      • Jingdezhen porcelain
    • Iran
      • Maghsoud Group of Factories, (1993–present)[64]
      • Zarin Iran porcelain Industries, (1881–present)[65]
    • Japan
      • Hirado ware
      • Kakiemon
      • Nabeshima ware
      • Narumi
      • Noritake
      • Schmid Kreglinger
    • Malaysia
      • Royal Selangor
    • Republic of korea
      • Haengnam Chinaware
      • Hankook Chinaware
    • Sri Lanka
      • Dankotuwa Porcelain
      • Noritake Lanka Porcelain
      • Majestic Fernwood Porcelain
    • Taiwan
      • Franz Collection
    • Turkey
      • Yildiz Porselen (1890–1936, 1994–present)
      • Kütahya Porselen (1970–present)
      • Güral Porselen (1989–present)
      • Porland Porselen (1976–nowadays)
      • Istanbul Porselen (1963 – early 1990s)
      • Sümerbank Porselen (1957–1994)
    • United Arab Emirates
      • RAK Porcelain
    • Vietnam
      • Minh Long I porcelain (1970–present)[66]
      • Bát Tràng porcelain (1352–present)
  • Europe
    • Republic of austria
      • Vienna Porcelain Factory, 1718–1864
      • Vienna Porcelain Factory Augarten, 1923–present
    • Croatia
      • Inkerpor (1953–present)
    • Czechia
      • Haas & Czjzek, Horní Slavkov (1792–2011)
      • Thun 1794, Klášterec nad Ohří (1794–present)
      • Český porcelán a.s., Dubí, Eichwelder Porzellan und Ofenfabriken Bloch & Co. Böhmen (1864–present)
      • Rudolf Kämpf, Nové Sedlo (Sokolov District) (1907–present)
    • Kingdom of denmark
      • Aluminia
      • Bing & Grøndahl
      • Kingdom of denmark porcelain
      • P. Ipsens Enke
      • Kastrup Vaerk
      • Kronjyden
      • Porcelænshaven
      • Royal Copenhagen (1775–present)
      • GreenGate
    • Republic of finland
      • Arabia
    • France
      • Saint-Cloud porcelain (1693–1766)
      • Chantilly porcelain (1730–1800)
      • Vincennes porcelain (1740–1756)
      • Mennecy-Villeroy porcelain (1745–1765)
      • Sèvres porcelain (1756–present)
      • Revol porcelain (1789–present)
      • Limoges porcelain
      • Haviland porcelain
    • Germany
      • Current porcelain manufacturers in Germany
    • Hungary
      • Hollóháza Porcelain Manufactory (1777–nowadays)
      • Herend Porcelain Industry (1826–present)
      • Zsolnay Porcelain Industry (1853–present)
    • Italian republic
      • Richard-Ginori 1735 Manifattura di Doccia (1735–present)[67]
      • Capodimonte porcelain (1743–1759)
      • Naples porcelain (1771–1806)
      • Manifattura Italiana Porcellane Artistiche Fabris (1922–1972)
      • Mangani SRL, Porcellane d'Arte (Florence)
    • Lithuania
      • Jiesia[68]
    • Netherlands
      • Haagsche Plateelbakkerij, Rozenburg
      • Loosdrechts Porselein
      • Weesp Porselein
    • Norway
      • Egersund porcelain
      • Figgjo (1941–nowadays)
      • Herrebøe porcelain
      • Porsgrund
      • Stavangerflint
    • Poland
      • AS Ćmielów
      • Fabryka Fajansu i Porcelany[69]
      • Polskie Fabryki Porcelany "Ćmielów" i "Chodzież" Southward.A.[70]
      • Kristoff Porcelana[71]
      • Lubiana S.A.[72]
    • Portugal
      • Vista Alegre
      • Sociedade Porcelanas de Alcobaça
      • Costa Verde (company), located in the district of Aveiro
    • Russia
      • Purple Porcelain Manufacturing plant, Leningrad (1744–present)
      • Verbilki Porcelain (1766–present), Verbilki well-nigh Taldom
      • Gzhel ceramics (1802–nowadays), Gzhel
      • Dulevo Farfor (1832–present), Likino-Dulyovo
    • Kingdom of spain
      • Buen Retiro Royal Porcelain Factory (1760–1812)
      • Real Fábrica de Sargadelos (1808–nowadays, intermittently)
      • Porvasal
    • Switzerland
      • Suisse Langenthal
    • Sweden
      • Rörstrand
      • Gustavsberg porcelain
    • United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland
      • Aynsley China (1775–present)
      • Belleek (1884–present)
      • Bow porcelain factory (1747–1776)
      • Caughley porcelain
      • Chelsea porcelain factory (c. 1745; merged with Derby in 1770)
      • Coalport porcelain
      • Davenport
      • Goss crested china
      • Liverpool porcelain
      • Longton Hall porcelain
      • Lowestoft Porcelain Factory
      • Mintons Ltd (1793–1968; merged with Royal Doulton)
      • Nantgarw Pottery
      • New Hall porcelain
      • Plymouth Porcelain
      • Rockingham Pottery
      • Regal Crown Derby (1750/57–present)
      • Majestic Doulton (1815–2009; acquired by Fiskars)
      • Purple Worcester (1751–2008; caused by Portmeirion Pottery)
      • Spode (1767–2008; acquired by Portmeirion Pottery)
      • Saint James'south Factory (or "Girl-in-a-Swing", 1750s)
      • Swansea porcelain
      • Vauxhall porcelain
      • Wedgwood, (factory 1759–nowadays, porcelain 1812–1829, and modernistic. Caused by Fiskars)

See also [edit]

  • Blue and white porcelain
  • List of porcelain manufacturers
  • Lithophane
  • Ocean pottery

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ "Porcelain, n. and adj". Oxford English Dictionary . Retrieved 18 Jun 2018.
  2. ^ OED, "China"; An Introduction to Pottery. 2nd edition. Rado P. Constitute of Ceramic / Pergamon Press. 1988. Usage of "china" in this sense is inconsistent, & it may be used of other types of ceramics besides.
  3. ^ Harmonized commodity clarification and coding organisation: explanatory notes, Volume 3, 1986, Customs Co-functioning Council, U.S. Customs Service, U.S. Section of the Treasury
  4. ^ Definition in The Combined Classification of the European Communities defines, Burton, 1906
  5. ^ Valenstein, S. (1998). A handbook of Chinese ceramics Archived September ix, 2016, at the Wayback Auto, pp. 22, 59-60, 72, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. ISBN 9780870995149
  6. ^ a b c Richards, Sarah (1999). Eighteenth-century ceramic: Products for a civilised lodge . Manchester: Manchester University Printing. pp. 23–26. ISBN978-0-7190-4465-half-dozen.
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References [edit]

  • Battie, David, ed., Sotheby's Concise Encyclopedia of Porcelain, 1990, Conran Octopus. ISBN 1850292515
  • Le Corbellier, Clare, Eighteenth-century Italian porcelain, 1985, Metropolitan Museum of Art, (fully available online as PDF)
  • Smith, Lawrence, Harris, Victor and Clark, Timothy, Japanese Art: Masterpieces in the British Museum, 1990, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0714114464
  • Vainker, South.J., Chinese Pottery and Porcelain, 1991, British Museum Press, 9780714114705
  • Watson, William ed., The Bang-up Japan Exhibition: Art of the Edo Catamenia 1600–1868, 1981, Regal Academy of Arts/Weidenfeld & Nicolson

Further reading [edit]

  • Burton, William (1906). Porcelain, Its Nature, Art and Industry. London: Batsford.
  • Combined Classification of the European Communities – EC Committee in Grand duchy of luxembourg, 1987.
  • Finlay, Robert (2010). The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in Globe History. Vol. 11 of California Earth History Library (Illustrated ed.). University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-94538-8 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  • Guy, John (1986). Guy, John (ed.). Oriental trade ceramics in South-East Asia, ninth to sixteenth centuries: with a catalogue of Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai wares in Australian collections (Illustrated, revised ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN9780195825930 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  • Rackham, Bernard. A Book of Porcelain at Projection Gutenberg
  • Valenstein, Southward. (1998). A Handbook of Chinese ceramics, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. ISBN 978-0-87099-514-9.

External links [edit]

  • How porcelain is made
  • How bisque porcelain is fabricated
  • ArtLex Art Dictionary – Porcelain

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcelain

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